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CalledfromaretirementwhichIhadsupposedwastocontinuefortheresidueofmylifetofillthechiefexecutiveofficeofthisgreatandfreenation，Iappearbeforeyou，fellow-citizens，totaketheoathswhichtheConstitutionprescribesasanecessaryqualificationfortheperformanceofitsduties；andinobediencetoacustomcoevalwithourGovernmentandwhatIbelievetobeyourexpectationsIproceedtopresenttoyouasummaryoftheprincipleswhichwillgovernmeinthedischargeofthedutieswhichIshallbecalledupontoperform.

ItwastheremarkofaRomanconsulinanearlyperiodofthatcelebratedRepublicthatamoststrikingcontrastwasobservableintheconductofcandidatesforofficesofpowerandtrustbeforeandafterobtainingthem，theyseldomcarryingoutinthelattercasethepledgesandpromisesmadeintheformer.HowevermuchtheworldmayhaveimprovedinmanyrespectsinthelapseofupwardoftwothousandyearssincetheremarkwasmadebythevirtuousandindignantRoman，Ifearthatastrictexaminationoftheannalsofsomeofthemodernelectivegovernmentswoulddevelopsimilarinstancesofviolatedconfidence.

AlthoughthefiatofthepeoplehasgoneforthproclaimingmetheChiefMagistrateofthisgloriousUnion，nothingupontheirpartremainingtobedone，itmaybethoughtthatamotivemayexisttokeepupthedelusionunderwhichtheymaybesupposedtohaveactedinrelationtomyprinciplesandopinions；andperhapstheremaybesomeinthisassemblywhohavecomehereeitherpreparedtocondemnthoseIshallnowdeliver，or，approvingthem，todoubtthesinceritywithwhichtheyarenowuttered.Butthelapseofafewmonthswillconfirmordispeltheirfears.TheoutlineofprinciplestogovernandmeasurestobeadoptedbyanAdministrationnotyetbegunwillsoonbeexchangedforimmutablehistory，andIshallstandeitherexoneratedbymycountrymenorclassedwiththemassofthosewhopromisedthattheymightdeceiveandflatteredwiththeintentiontobetray.Howeverstrongmaybemypresentpurposetorealizetheexpectationsofamagnanimousandconfidingpeople，ItoowellunderstandthedangeroustemptationstowhichIshallbeexposedfromthemagnitudeofthepowerwhichithasbeenthepleasureofthepeopletocommittomyhandsnottoplacemychiefconfidenceupontheaidofthatAlmightyPowerwhichhashithertoprotectedmeandenabledmetobringtofavorableissuesotherimportantbutstillgreatlyinferiortrustsheretoforeconfidedtomebymycountry.

ThebroadfoundationuponwhichourConstitutionrestsbeingthepeople——abreathoftheirshavingmade，asabreathcanunmake，change，ormodifyit——itcanbeassignedtononeofthegreatdivisionsofgovernmentbuttothatofdemocracy.Ifsuchisitstheory，thosewhoarecalledupontoadministeritmustrecognizeasitsleadingprinciplethedutyofshapingtheirmeasuressoastoproducethegreatestgoodtothegreatestnumber.Butwiththesebroadadmissions，ifwewouldcomparethesovereigntyacknowledgedtoexistinthemassofourpeoplewiththepowerclaimedbyothersovereignties，evenbythosewhichhavebeenconsideredmostpurelydemocratic，weshallfindamostessentialdifference.Allotherslayclaimtopowerlimitedonlybytheirownwill.Themajorityofourcitizens，onthecontrary，possessasovereigntywithanamountofpowerpreciselyequaltothatwhichhasbeengrantedtothembythepartiestothenationalcompact，andnothingbeyond.Weadmitofnogovernmentbydivineright，believingthatsofaraspowerisconcernedtheBeneficentCreatorhasmadenodistinctionamongstmen；thatallareuponanequality，andthattheonlylegitimaterighttogovernisanexpressgrantofpowerfromthegoverned.TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesistheinstrumentcontainingthisgrantofpowertotheseveraldepartmentscomposingtheGovernment.Onanexaminationofthatinstrumentitwillbefoundtocontaindeclarationsofpowergrantedandofpowerwithheld.Thelatterisalsosusceptibleofdivisionintopowerwhichthemajorityhadtherighttogrant，butwhichtheydonotthinkpropertointrusttotheiragents，andthatwhichtheycouldnothavegranted，notbeingpossessedbythemselves.Inotherwords，therearecertainrightspossessedbyeachindividualAmericancitizenwhichinhiscompactwiththeothershehasneversurrendered.Someofthem，indeed，heisunabletosurrender，being，inthelanguageofoursystem，unalienable.TheboastedprivilegeofaRomancitizenwastohimashieldonlyagainstapettyprovincialruler，whilsttheprouddemocratofAthenswouldconsolehimselfunderasentenceofdeathforasupposedviolationofthenationalfaith——whichnooneunderstoodandwhichattimeswasthesubjectofthemockeryofall——orthebanishmentfromhishome，hisfamily，andhiscountrywithorwithoutanallegedcause，thatitwastheactnotofasingletyrantorhatedaristocracy，butofhisassembledcountrymen.Fardifferentisthepowerofoursovereignty.Itcaninterferewithnoone''''sfaith，prescribeformsofworshipfornoone''''sobservance，inflictnopunishmentbutafterwell-ascertainedguilt，theresultofinvestigationunderrulesprescribedbytheConstitutionitself.Thesepreciousprivileges，andthosescarcelylessimportantofgivingexpressiontohisthoughtsandopinions，eitherbywritingorspeaking，unrestrainedbutbytheliabilityforinjurytoothers，andthatofafullparticipationinalltheadvantageswhichflowfromtheGovernment，theacknowledgedpropertyofall，theAmericancitizenderivesfromnochartergrantedbyhisfellow-man.Heclaimsthembecauseheishimselfaman，fashionedbythesameAlmightyhandastherestofhisspeciesandentitledtoafullshareoftheblessingswithwhichHehasendowedthem.NotwithstandingthelimitedsovereigntypossessedbythepeopleoftheUnitedStagesandtherestrictedgrantofpowertotheGovernmentwhichtheyhaveadopted，enoughhasbeengiventoaccomplishalltheobjectsforwhichitwascreated.Ithasbeenfoundpowerfulinwar，andhithertojusticehasbeenadministered，andintimateunioneffected，domestictranquillitypreserved，andpersonallibertysecuredtothecitizen.Aswastobeexpected，however，fromthedefectoflanguageandthenecessarilysententiousmannerinwhichtheConstitutioniswritten，disputeshavearisenastotheamountofpowerwhichithasactuallygrantedorwasintendedtogrant.Thisismoreparticularlythecaseinrelationtothatpartoftheinstrumentwhichtreatsofthelegislativebranch，andnotonlyasregardstheexerciseofpowersclaimedunderageneralclausegivingthatbodytheauthoritytopassalllawsnecessarytocarryintoeffectthespecifiedpowers，butinrelationtothelatteralso.Itis，however，consolatorytoreflectthatmostoftheinstancesofallegeddeparturefromtheletterorspiritoftheConstitutionhaveultimatelyreceivedthesanctionofamajorityofthepeople.Andthefactthatmanyofourstatesmenmostdistinguishedfortalentandpatriotismhavebeenatonetimeorotheroftheirpoliticalcareeronbothsidesofeachofthemostwarmlydisputedquestionsforcesuponustheinferencethattheerrors，iferrorstherewere，areattributabletotheintrinsicdifficultyinmanyinstancesofascertainingtheintentionsoftheframersoftheConstitutionratherthantheinfluenceofanysinisterorunpatrioticmotive.ButthegreatdangertoourinstitutionsdoesnotappeartometobeinausurpationbytheGovernmentofpowernotgrantedbythepeople，butbytheaccumulationinoneofthedepartmentsofthatwhichwasassignedtoothers.Limitedasarethepowerswhichhavebeengranted，stillenoughhavebeengrantedtoconstituteadespotismifconcentratedinoneofthedepartments.Thisdangerisgreatlyheightened，asithasbeenalwaysobservablethatmenarelessjealousofencroachmentsofonedepartmentuponanotherthanupontheirownreservedrights.WhentheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesfirstcamefromthehandsoftheConventionwhichformedit，manyofthesternestrepublicansofthedaywerealarmedattheextentofthepowerwhichhadbeengrantedtotheFederalGovernment，andmoreparticularlyofthatportionwhichhadbeenassignedtotheexecutivebranch.Therewereinitfeatureswhichappearednottobeinharmonywiththeirideasofasimplerepresentativedemocracyorrepublic，andknowingthetendencyofpowertoincreaseitself，particularlywhenexercisedbyasingleindividual，predictionsweremadethatatnoveryremoteperiodtheGovernmentwouldterminateinvirtualmonarchy.Itwouldnotbecomemetosaythatthefearsofthesepatriotshavebeenalreadyrealized；butasIsincerelybelievethatthetendencyofmeasuresandofmen''''sopinionsforsomeyearspasthasbeeninthatdirection，itis，Iconceive，strictlyproperthatIshouldtakethisoccasiontorepeattheassurancesIhaveheretoforegivenofmydeterminationtoarresttheprogressofthattendencyifitreallyexistsandrestoretheGovernmenttoitspristinehealthandvigor，asfarasthiscanbeeffectedbyanylegitimateexerciseofthepowerplacedinmyhands.

IproceedtostateinassummaryamannerasIcanmyopinionofthesourcesoftheevilswhichhavebeensoextensivelycomplainedofandthecorrectiveswhichmaybeapplied.SomeoftheformerareunquestionablytobefoundinthedefectsoftheConstitution；others，inmyjudgment，areattributabletoamisconstructionofsomeofitsprovisions.OftheformeristheeligibilityofthesameindividualtoasecondtermofthePresidency.ThesagaciousmindofMr.Jeffersonearlysawandlamentedthiserror，andattemptshavebeenmade，hithertowithoutsuccess，toapplytheamendatorypoweroftheStatestoitscorrection.As，however，onemodeofcorrectionisinthepowerofeveryPresident，andconsequentlyinmine，itwouldbeuseless，andperhapsinvidious，toenumeratetheevilsofwhich，intheopinionofmanyofourfellow-citizens，thiserrorofthesageswhoframedtheConstitutionmayhavebeenthesourceandthebitterfruitswhichwearestilltogatherfromitifitcontinuestodisfigureoursystem.Itmaybeobserved，however，asageneralremark，thatrepublicscancommitnogreatererrorthantoadoptorcontinueanyfeatureintheirsystemsofgovernmentwhichmaybecalculatedtocreateorincreasetheloverofpowerinthebosomsofthosetowhomnecessityobligesthemtocommitthemanagementoftheiraffairs；andsurelynothingismorelikelytoproducesuchastateofmindthanthelongcontinuanceofanofficeofhightrust.Nothingcanbemorecorrupting，nothingmoredestructiveofallthosenoblefeelingswhichbelongtothecharacterofadevotedrepublicanpatriot.Whenthiscorruptingpassiononcetakespossessionofthehumanmind，liketheloveofgolditbecomesinsatiable.Itisthenever-dyingworminhisbosom，growswithhisgrowthandstrengthenswiththedecliningyearsofitsvictim.Ifthisistrue，itisthepartofwisdomforarepublictolimittheserviceofthatofficeratleasttowhomshehasintrustedthemanagementofherforeignrelations，theexecutionofherlaws，andthecommandofherarmiesandnaviestoaperiodsoshortastopreventhisforgettingthatheistheaccountableagent，nottheprincipal；theservant，notthemaster.UntilanamendmentoftheConstitutioncanbeeffectedpublicopinionmaysecurethedesiredobject.IgivemyaidtoitbyrenewingthepledgeheretoforegiventhatundernocircumstanceswillIconsenttoserveasecondterm.

ButifthereisdangertopubliclibertyfromtheacknowledgeddefectsoftheConstitutioninthewantoflimittothecontinuanceoftheExecutivepowerinthesamehands，thereis，Iapprehend，notmuchlessfromamisconstructionofthatinstrumentasitregardsthepowersactuallygiven.IcannotconceivethatbyafairconstructionanyoreitherofitsprovisionswouldbefoundtoconstitutethePresidentapartofthelegislativepower.Itcannotbeclaimedfromthepowertorecommend，since，althoughenjoinedasadutyuponhim，itisaprivilegewhichheholdsincommonwitheveryothercitizen；andalthoughtheremaybesomethingmoreofconfidenceintheproprietyofthemeasuresrecommendedintheonecasethanintheother，intheobligationsofultimatedecisiontherecanbenodifference.InthelanguageoftheConstitution，“allthelegislativepowers”whichitgrants“arevestedintheCongressoftheUnitedStates.”Itwouldbeasolecisminlanguagetosaythatanyportionoftheseisnotincludedinthewhole.

Itmaybesaid，indeed，thattheConstitutionhasgiventotheExecutivethepowertoannultheactsofthelegislativebodybyrefusingtothemhisassent.Soasimilarpowerhasnecessarilyresultedfromthatinstrumenttothejudiciary，andyetthejudiciaryformsnopartoftheLegislature.Thereis，itistrue，thisdifferencebetweenthesegrantsofpower：TheExecutivecanputhisnegativeupontheactsoftheLegislatureforothercausethanthatofwantofconformitytotheConstitution，whilstthejudiciarycanonlydeclarevoidthosewhichviolatethatinstrument.Butthedecisionofthejudiciaryisfinalinsuchacase，whereasineveryinstancewherethevetooftheExecutiveisapplieditmaybeovercomebyavoteoftwo-thirdsofbothHousesofCongress.Thenegativeupontheactsofthelegislativebytheexecutiveauthority，andthatinthehandsofoneindividual，wouldseemtobeanincongruityinoursystem.Likesomeothersofasimilarcharacter，however，itappearstobehighlyexpedient，andifusedonlywiththeforbearanceandinthespiritwhichwasintendedbyitsauthorsitmaybeproductiveofgreatgoodandbefoundoneofthebestsafeguardstotheUnion.AttheperiodoftheformationoftheConstitutiontheprincipledoesnotappeartohaveenjoyedmuchfavorintheStategovernments.Itexistedbutintwo，andinoneofthesetherewasapluralexecutive.IfwewouldsearchforthemotiveswhichoperateduponthepurelypatrioticandenlightenedassemblywhichframedtheConstitutionfortheadoptionofaprovisionsoapparentlyrepugnanttotheleadingdemocraticprinciplethatthemajorityshouldgovern，wemustrejecttheideathattheyanticipatedfromitanybenefittotheordinarycourseoflegislation.TheyknewtoowellthehighdegreeofintelligencewhichexistedamongthepeopleandtheenlightenedcharacteroftheStatelegislaturesnottohavethefullestconfidencethatthetwobodieselectedbythemwouldbeworthyrepresentativesofsuchconstituents，and，ofcourse，thattheywouldrequirenoaidinconceivingandmaturingthemeasureswhichthecircumstancesofthecountrymightrequire.AnditispreposteroustosupposethatathoughtcouldforamomenthavebeenentertainedthatthePresident，placedatthecapital，inthecenterofthecountry，couldbetterunderstandthewantsandwishesofthepeoplethantheirownimmediaterepresentatives，whospendapartofeveryyearamongthem，livingwiththem，oftenlaboringwiththem，andboundtothembythetripletieofinterest，duty，andaffection.ToassistorcontrolCongress，then，initsordinarylegislationcouldnot，Iconceive，havebeenthemotiveforconferringthevetopoweronthePresident.ThisargumentacquiresadditionalforcefromthefactofitsneverhavingbeenthususedbythefirstsixPresidents——andtwoofthemweremembersoftheConvention，onepresidingoveritsdeliberationsandtheotherbearingalargershareinconsummatingthelaborsofthataugustbodythananyotherperson.ButifbillswereneverreturnedtoCongressbyeitherofthePresidentsabovereferredtouponthegroundoftheirbeinginexpedientornotaswelladaptedastheymightbetothewantsofthepeople，thevetowasapplieduponthatofwantofconformitytotheConstitutionorbecauseerrorshadbeencommittedfromatoohastyenactment.

Thereisanothergroundfortheadoptionofthevetoprinciple，whichhadprobablymoreinfluenceinrecommendingittotheConventionthananyother.IrefertothesecuritywhichitgivestothejustandequitableactionoftheLegislatureuponallpartsoftheUnion.ItcouldnotbuthaveoccurredtotheConventionthatinacountrysoextensive，embracingsogreatavarietyofsoilandclimate，andconsequentlyofproducts，andwhichfromthesamecausesmusteverexhibitagreatdifferenceintheamountofthepopulationofitsvarioussections，callingforagreatdiversityintheemploymentsofthepeople，thatthelegislationofthemajoritymightnotalwaysjustlyregardtherightsandinterestsoftheminority，andthatactsofthischaractermightbepassedunderanexpressgrantbythewordsoftheConstitution，andthereforenotwithinthecompetencyofthejudiciarytodeclarevoid；thathoweverenlightenedandpatriotictheymightsupposefrompastexperiencethemembersofCongressmightbe，andhoweverlargelypartaking，inthegeneral，oftheliberalfeelingsofthepeople，itwasimpossibletoexpectthatbodiessoconstitutedshouldnotsometimesbecontrolledbylocalinterestsandsectionalfeelings.Itwasproper，therefore，toprovidesomeumpirefromwhosesituationandmodeofappointmentmoreindependenceandfreedomfromsuchinfluencesmightbeexpected.SuchaonewasaffordedbytheexecutivedepartmentconstitutedbytheConstitution.Apersonelectedtothathighoffice，havinghisconstituentsineverysection，State，andsubdivisionoftheUnion，mustconsiderhimselfboundbythemostsolemnsanctionstoguard，protect，anddefendtherightsofallandofeveryportion，greatorsmall，fromtheinjusticeandoppressionoftherest.Iconsiderthevetopower，thereforegivenbytheConstitutiontotheExecutiveoftheUnitedStatessolelyasaconservativepower，tobeusedonlyfirst，toprotecttheConstitutionfromviolation；secondly，thepeoplefromtheeffectsofhastylegislationwheretheirwillhasbeenprobablydisregardedornotwellunderstood，and，thirdly，topreventtheeffectsofcombinationsviolativeoftherightsofminorities.InreferencetothesecondoftheseobjectsImayobservethatIconsiderittherightandprivilegeofthepeopletodecidedisputedpointsoftheConstitutionarisingfromthegeneralgrantofpowertoCongresstocarryintoeffectthepowersexpresslygiven；andIbelievewithMr.Madisonthat“repeatedrecognitionsundervariedcircumstancesinactsofthelegislative，executive，andjudicialbranchesoftheGovernment，accompaniedbyindicationsindifferentmodesoftheconcurrenceofthegeneralwillofthenation，”asaffordingtothePresidentsufficientauthorityforhisconsideringsuchdisputedpointsassettled.

Upwardofhalfacenturyhaselapsedsincetheadoptionofthepresentformofgovernment.Itwouldbeanobjectmorehighlydesirablethanthegratificationofthecuriosityofspeculativestatesmenifitsprecisesituationcouldbeascertained，afairexhibitmadeoftheoperationsofeachofitsdepartments，ofthepowerswhichtheyrespectivelyclaimandexercise，ofthecollisionswhichhaveoccurredbetweenthemorbetweenthewholeGovernmentandthoseoftheStatesoreitherofthem.Wecouldthencompareouractualconditionafterfiftyyears''''trialofoursystemwithwhatitwasinthecommencementofitsoperationsandascertainwhetherthepredictionsofthepatriotswhoopposeditsadoptionortheconfidenthopesofitsadvocateshavebeenbestrealized.ThegreatdreadoftheformerseemstohavebeenthatthereservedpowersoftheStateswouldbeabsorbedbythoseoftheFederalGovernmentandaconsolidatedpowerestablished，leavingtotheStatestheshadowonlyofthatindependentactionforwhichtheyhadsozealouslycontendedandonthepreservationofwhichtheyreliedasthelasthopeofliberty.Withoutdenyingthattheresulttowhichtheylookedwithsomuchapprehensionisinthewayofbeingrealized，itisobviousthattheydidnotclearlyseethemodeofitsaccomplishmentTheGeneralGovernmenthasseizeduponnoneofthereservedrightsoftheStates.ASfarasanyopenwarfaremayhavegone，theStateauthoritieshaveamplymaintainedtheirrights.Toacasualobserveroursystempresentsnoappearanceofdiscordbetweenthedifferentmemberswhichcomposeit.Eventheadditionofmanynewoneshasproducednojarring.Theymoveintheirrespectiveorbitsinperfectharmonywiththecentralheadandwitheachother.Butthereisstillanundercurrentatworkbywhich，ifnotseasonablychecked，theworstapprehensionsofourantifederalpatriotswillberealized，andnotonlywilltheStateauthoritiesbeovershadowedbythegreatincreaseofpowerintheexecutivedepartmentoftheGeneralGovernment，butthecharacterofthatGovernment，ifnotitsdesignation，beessentiallyandradicallychanged.ThisstateofthingshasbeeninparteffectedbycausesinherentintheConstitutionandinpartbythenever-failingtendencyofpoliticalpowertoincreaseitself.BymakingthePresidentthesoledistributerofallthepatronageoftheGovernmenttheframersoftheConstitutiondonotappeartohaveanticipatedathowshortaperioditwouldbecomeaformidableinstrumenttocontrolthefreeoperationsoftheStategovernments.Oftriflingimportanceatfirst，ithadearlyinMr.Jefferson''''sAdministrationbecomesopowerfulastocreategreatalarminthemindofthatpatriotfromthepotentinfluenceitmightexertincontrollingthefreedomoftheelectivefranchise.Ifsuchcouldhavethenbeentheeffectsofitsinfluence，howmuchgreatermustbethedangeratthistime，quadrupledinamountasitcertainlyisandmorecompletelyunderthecontroloftheExecutivewillthantheirconstructionoftheirpowersallowedortheforbearingcharactersofalltheearlyPresidentspermittedthemtomake.Butitisnotbytheextentofitspatronagealonethattheexecutivedepartmenthasbecomedangerous，butbytheusewhichitappearsmaybemadeoftheappointingpowertobringunderitscontrolthewholerevenuesofthecountry.TheConstitutionhasdeclaredittobethedutyofthePresidenttoseethatthelawsareexecuted，anditmakeshimtheCommanderinChiefoftheArmiesandNavyoftheUnitedStates.IftheopinionofthemostapprovedwritersuponthatspeciesofmixedgovernmentwhichinmodernEuropeistermedmonarchyincontradistinctiontodespotismiscorrect，therewaswantingnootheradditiontothepowersofourChiefMagistratetostampamonarchicalcharacteronourGovernmentbutthecontrolofthepublicfinances；andtomeitappearsstrangeindeedthatanyoneshoulddoubtthattheentirecontrolwhichthePresidentpossessesovertheofficerswhohavethecustodyofthepublicmoney，bythepowerofremovalwithorwithoutcause，does，forallmischievouspurposesatleast，virtuallysubjectthetreasurealsotohisdisposal.ThefirstRomanEmperor，inhisattempttoseizethesacredtreasure，silencedtheoppositionoftheofficertowhosechargeithadbeencommittedbyasignificantallusiontohissword.ByaselectionofpoliticalinstrumentsforthecareofthepublicmoneyareferencetotheircommissionsbyaPresidentwouldbequiteaseffectualanargumentasthatofCaesartotheRomanknight.Iamnotinsensibleofthegreatdifficultythatexistsindrawingaproperplanforthesafe-keepinganddisbursementofthepublicrevenues，andIknowtheimportancewhichhasbeenattachedbymenofgreatabilitiesandpatriotismtothedivorce，asitiscalled，oftheTreasuryfromthebankinginstitutionsItisnotthedivorcewhichiscomplainedof，buttheunhallowedunionoftheTreasurywiththeexecutivedepartment，whichhascreatedsuchextensivealarm.TothisdangertoourrepublicaninstitutionsandthatcreatedbytheinfluencegiventotheExecutivethroughtheinstrumentalityoftheFederalofficersIproposetoapplyalltheremedieswhichmaybeatmycommand.ItwascertainlyagreaterrorintheframersoftheConstitutionnottohavemadetheofficerattheheadoftheTreasuryDepartmententirelyindependentoftheExecutive.HeshouldatleasthavebeenremovableonlyuponthedemandofthepopularbranchoftheLegislature.IhavedeterminednevertoremoveaSecretaryoftheTreasurywithoutcommunicatingallthecircumstancesattendingsuchremovaltobothHousesofCongress.TheinfluenceoftheExecutiveincontrollingthefreedomoftheelectivefranchisethroughthemediumofthepublicofficerscanbeeffectuallycheckedbyrenewingtheprohibitionpublishedbyMr.Jeffersonforbiddingtheirinterferenceinelectionsfurtherthangivingtheirownvotes，andtheirownindependencesecuredbyanassuranceofperfectimmunityinexercisingthissacredprivilegeoffreemenunderthedictatesoftheirownunbiasedjudgments.Neverwithmyconsentshallanofficerofthepeople，compensatedforhisservicesoutoftheirpockets，becomethepliantinstrumentofExecutivewill.

ThereisnopartofthemeansplacedinthehandsoftheExecutivewhichmightbeusedwithgreatereffectforunhallowedpurposesthanthecontrolofthepublicpress.Themaximwhichourancestorsderivedfromthemothercountrythat“thefreedomofthepressisthegreatbulwarkofcivilandreligiousliberty”isoneofthemostpreciouslegacieswhichtheyhaveleftus.Wehavelearned，too，fromourownaswellastheexperienceofothercountries，thatgoldenshackles，bywhomsoeverorbywhateverpretenseimposed，areasfataltoitastheironbondsofdespotism.ThepressesinthenecessaryemploymentoftheGovernmentshouldneverbeused“tocleartheguiltyortovarnishcrime.”AdecentandmanlyexaminationoftheactsoftheGovernmentshouldbenotonlytolerated，butencouraged.

UponanotheroccasionIhavegivenmyopinionatsomelengthupontheimproprietyofExecutiveinterferenceinthelegislationofCongress——thatthearticleintheConstitutionmakingitthedutyofthePresidenttocommunicateinformationandauthorizinghimtorecommendmeasureswasnotintendedtomakehimthesourceinlegislation，and，inparticular，thatheshouldneverbelookedtoforschemesoffinance.Itwouldbeverystrange，indeed，thattheConstitutionshouldhavestrictlyforbiddenonebranchoftheLegislaturefrominterferingintheoriginationofsuchbillsandthatitshouldbeconsideredproperthatanaltogetherdifferentdepartmentoftheGovernmentshouldbepermittedtodoso.Someofourbestpoliticalmaximsandopinionshavebeendrawnfromourparentisle.Thereareothers，however，whichcannotbeintroducedinoursystemwithoutsingularincongruityandtheproductionofmuchmischief，andthisIconceivetobeone.NomatterinwhichofthehousesofParliamentabillmayoriginatenorbywhomintroduced——aministeroramemberoftheopposition——bythefictionoflaw，orratherofConstitutionalprinciple，thesovereignissupposedtohaveprepareditagreeablytohiswillandthensubmittedittoParliamentfortheiradviceandconsent.Nowtheveryreverseisthecasehere，notonlywithregardtotheprinciple，buttheformsprescribedbytheConstitution.TheprinciplecertainlyassignstotheonlybodyconstitutedbytheConstitution（thelegislativebody）thepowertomakelaws，andtheformsevendirectthattheenactmentshouldbeascribedtothem.TheSenate，inrelationtorevenuebills，havetherighttoproposeamendments，andsohastheExecutivebythepowergivenhimtoreturnthemtotheHouseofRepresentativeswithhisobjections.Itisinhispoweralsotoproposeamendmentsintheexistingrevenuelaws，suggestedbyhisobservationsupontheirdefectiveorinjuriousoperation.ButthedelicatedutyofdevisingschemesofrevenueshouldbeleftwheretheConstitutionhasplacedit——withtheimmediaterepresentativesofthepeople.Forsimilarreasonsthemodeofkeepingthepublictreasureshouldbeprescribedbythem，andthefurtherremoveditmaybefromthecontroloftheExecutivethemorewholesomethearrangementandthemoreinaccordancewithrepublicanprinciple.

Connectedwiththissubjectisthecharacterofthecurrency.Theideaofmakingitexclusivelymetallic，howeverwellintended，appearstometobefraughtwithmorefatalconsequencesthananyotherschemehavingnorelationtothepersonalrightsofthecitizensthathaseverbeendevised.Ifanysingleschemecouldproducetheeffectofarrestingatoncethatmutationofconditionbywhichthousandsofourmostindigentfellow-citizensbytheirindustryandenterpriseareraisedtothepossessionofwealth，thatistheone.Ifthereisonemeasurebettercalculatedthananothertoproducethatstateofthingssomuchdeprecatedbyalltruerepublicans，bywhichthericharedailyaddingtotheirhoardsandthepoorsinkingdeeperintopenury，itisanexclusivemetalliccurrency.Orifthereisaprocessbywhichthecharacterofthecountryforgenerosityandnoblenessoffeelingmaybedestroyedbythegreatincreaseandnecktolerationofusury，itisanexclusivemetalliccurrency.

AmongsttheotherdutiesofadelicatecharacterwhichthePresidentiscalledupontoperformisthesupervisionofthegovernmentoftheTerritoriesoftheUnitedStates.Thoseofthemwhicharedestinedtobecomemembersofourgreatpoliticalfamilyarecompensatedbytheirrapidprogressfrominfancytomanhoodforthepartialandtemporarydeprivationoftheirpoliticalrights.ItisinthisDistrictonlywhereAmericancitizensaretobefoundwhounderasettledpolicyaredeprivedofmanyimportantpoliticalprivilegeswithoutanyinspiringhopeastothefuture.Theironlyconsolationundercircumstancesofsuchdeprivationisthatofthedevotedexteriorguardsofacamp——thattheirsufferingssecuretranquillityandsafetywithin.Arethereanyoftheircountrymen，whowouldsubjectthemtogreatersacrifices，toanyotherhumiliationsthanthoseessentiallynecessarytothesecurityoftheobjectforwhichtheywerethusseparatedfromtheirfellow-citizens？AretheirrightsalonenottobeguaranteedbytheapplicationofthosegreatprinciplesuponwhichallourConstitutionsarefounded？WearetoldbythegreatestofBritishoratorsandstatesmenthatatthecommencementoftheWaroftheRevolutionthemoststupidmeninEnglandspokeof“theirAmericansubjects.”Arethere，indeed，citizensofanyofourStateswhohavedreamedoftheirsubjectsintheDistrictofColumbia？Suchdreamscanneverberealizedbyanyagencyofmine.ThepeopleoftheDistrictofColumbiaarenotthesubjectsofthepeopleoftheStates，butfreeAmericancitizens.BeinginthelatterconditionwhentheConstitutionwasformed，nowordsusedinthatinstrumentcouldhavebeenintendedtodeprivethemofthatcharacter.IfthereisanythinginthegreatprincipleofunalienablerightssoemphaticallyinsisteduponinourDeclarationofIndependence，theycouldneithermakenortheUnitedStatesacceptasurrenderoftheirlibertiesandbecomethesubjects——inotherwords，theslaves——oftheirformerfellow-citizens.Ifthisbetrue——anditwillscarcelybedeniedbyanyonewhohasacorrectideaofhisownrightsasanAmericancitizen——thegranttoCongressofexclusivejurisdictionintheDistrictofColumbiacanbeinterpreted，sofarasrespectstheaggregatepeopleoftheUnitedStates，asmeaningnothingmorethantoallowtoCongressthecontrollingpowernecessarytoaffordafreeandsafeexerciseofthefunctionsassignedtotheGeneralGovernmentbytheConstitution.InallotherrespectsthelegislationofCongressshouldbeadaptedtotheirpeculiarpositionandwantsandbeconformablewiththeirdeliberateopinionsoftheirowninterests.

IhavespokenofthenecessityofkeepingtherespectivedepartmentsoftheGovernment，aswellasalltheotherauthoritiesofourcountry，withintheirappropriateorbits.Thisisamatterofdifficultyinsomecases，asthepowerswhichtheyrespectivelyclaimareoftennotdefinedbyanydistinctlines.Mischievous，however，intheirtendenciesascollisionsofthiskindmaybe，thosewhicharisebetweentherespectivecommunitieswhichforcertainpurposescomposeonenationaremuchmoreso，fornosuchnationcanlongexistwithoutthecarefulcultureofthosefeelingsofconfidenceandaffectionwhicharetheeffectivebondstounionbetweenfreeandconfederatedstates.Strongasisthetieofinterest，ithasbeenoftenfoundineffectual.Menblindedbytheirpassionshavebeenknowntoadoptmeasuresfortheircountryindirectoppositiontoallthesuggestionsofpolicy.Thealternative，then，istodestroyorkeepdownabadpassionbycreatingandfosteringagoodone，andthisseemstobethecornerstoneuponwhichourAmericanpoliticalarchitectshaverearedthefabricofourGovernment.Thecementwhichwastobinditandperpetuateitsexistencewastheaffectionateattachmentbetweenallitsmembers.Toinsurethecontinuanceofthisfeeling，producedatfirstbyacommunityofdangers，ofsufferings，andofinterests，theadvantagesofeachweremadeaccessibletoall.NoparticipationinanygoodpossessedbyanymemberofourextensiveConfederacy，exceptindomesticgovernment，waswithheldfromthecitizenofanyothermember.Byaprocessattendedwithnodifficulty，nodelay，noexpensebutthatofremoval，thecitizenofonemightbecomethecitizenofanyother，andsuccessivelyofthewhole.Thelines，too，separatingpowerstobeexercisedbythecitizensofoneStatefromthoseofanotherseemtobesodistinctlydrawnastoleavenoroomformisunderstanding.ThecitizensofeachStateuniteintheirpersonsalltheprivilegeswhichthatcharacterconfersandallthattheymayclaimascitizensoftheUnitedStates，butinnocasecanthesamepersonsatthesametimeactasthecitizenoftwoseparateStates，andheisthereforepositivelyprecludedfromanyinterferencewiththereservedpowersofanyStatebutthatofwhichheisforthetimebeingacitizen.Hemay，indeed，offertothecitizensofotherStateshisadviceastotheirmanagement，andtheforminwhichitistenderedislefttohisowndiscretionandsenseofpropriety.Itmaybeobserved，however，thatorganizedassociationsofcitizensrequiringcompliancewiththeirwishestoomuchresembletherecommendationsofAthenstoherallies，supportedbyanarmedandpowerfulfleet.Itwas，indeed，totheambitionoftheleadingStatesofGreecetocontrolthedomesticconcernsoftheothersthatthedestructionofthatcelebratedConfederacy，andsubsequentlyofallitsmembers，ismainlytobeattributed，anditisowingtotheabsenceofthatspiritthattheHelveticConfederacyhasforsomanyyearsbeenpreserved.Neverhastherebeenseenintheinstitutionsoftheseparatemembersofanyconfederacymoreelementsofdiscord.Intheprinciplesandformsofgovernmentandreligion，aswellasinthecircumstancesoftheseveralCantons，somarkedadiscrepancywasobservableastopromiseanythingbutharmonyintheirintercourseorpermanencyintheiralliance，andyetforagesneitherhasbeeninterrupted.Contentwiththepositivebenefitswhichtheirunionproduced，withtheindependenceandsafetyfromforeignaggressionwhichitsecured，thesesagaciouspeoplerespectedtheinstitutionsofeachother，howeverrepugnanttotheirownprinciplesandprejudices.

OurConfederacy，fellow-citizens，canonlybepreservedbythesameforbearance.OurcitizensmustbecontentwiththeexerciseofthepowerswithwhichtheConstitutionclothesthem.TheattemptofthoseofoneStatetocontrolthedomesticinstitutionsofanothercanonlyresultinfeelingsofdistrustandjealousy，thecertainharbingersofdisunion，violence，andcivilwar，andtheultimatedestructionofourfreeinstitutions.OurConfederacyisperfectlyillustratedbythetermsandprinciplesgoverningacommoncopartnershipThereisafundofpowertobeexercisedunderthedirectionofthejointcouncilsofthealliedmembers，butthatwhichhasbeenreservedbytheindividualmembersisintangiblebythecommonGovernmentortheindividualmemberscomposingit.ToattemptitfindsnosupportintheprinciplesofourConstitution.

ItshouldbeourconstantandearnestendeavormutuallytocultivateaspiritofconcordandharmonyamongthevariouspartsofourConfederacy.ExperiencehasabundantlytaughtusthattheagitationbycitizensofonepartoftheUnionofasubjectnotconfidedtotheGeneralGovernment，butexclusivelyundertheguardianshipofthelocalauthorities，isproductiveofnootherconsequencesthanbitterness，alienation，discord，andinjurytotheverycausewhichisintendedtobeadvanced.Ofallthegreatinterestswhichappertaintoourcountry，thatofunion——cordial，confiding，fraternalunion——isbyfarthemostimportant，sinceitistheonlytrueandsureguarantyofallothers.

Inconsequenceoftheembarrassedstateofbusinessandthecurrency，someoftheStatesmaymeetwithdifficultyintheirfinancialconcerns.HoweverdeeplywemayregretanythingimprudentorexcessiveintheengagementsintowhichStateshaveenteredforpurposesoftheirown，itdoesnotbecomeustodisparagetheStatesgovernments，nortodiscouragethemfrommakingpropereffortsfortheirownrelief.Onthecontrary，itisourdutytoencouragethemtotheextentofourConstitutionalauthoritytoapplytheirbestmeansandcheerfullytomakeallnecessarysacrificesandsubmittoallnecessaryburdenstofulfilltheirengagementsandmaintaintheircredit，forthecharacterandcreditoftheseveralStatesformapartofthecharacterandcreditofthewholecountry.Theresourcesofthecountryareabundant，theenterpriseandactivityofourpeopleproverbial，andwemaywellhopethatwiselegislationandprudentadministrationbytherespectivegovernments，eachactingwithinitsownsphere，willrestoreformerprosperity.

Unpleasantandevendangerousascollisionsmaysometimesbebetweentheconstitutedauthoritiesofthecitizensofourcountryinrelationtothelineswhichseparatetheirrespectivejurisdictions，theresultscanbeofnovitalinjurytoourinstitutionsifthatardentpatriotism，thatdevotedattachmenttoliberty，thatspiritofmoderationandforbearanceforwhichourcountrymenwereoncedistinguished，continuetobecherished.Ifthiscontinuestobetherulingpassionofoursouls，theweakerfeelingofthemistakenenthusiastwillbecorrected，theUtopiandreamsoftheschemingpoliticiandissipated，andthecomplicatedintriguesofthedemagoguerenderedharmless.Thespiritoflibertyisthesovereignbalmforeveryinjurywhichourinstitutionsmayreceive.Onthecontrary，nocarethatcanbeusedintheconstructionofourGovernment，nodivisionofpowers，nodistributionofchecksinitsseveraldepartments，willproveeffectualtokeepusafreepeopleifthisspiritissufferedtodecay；anddecayitwillwithoutconstantnurture.Totheneglectofthisdutythebesthistoriansagreeinattributingtheruinofalltherepublicswithwhoseexistenceandfalltheirwritingshavemadeusacquainted.Thesamecauseswilleverproducethesameeffects，andaslongastheloveofpowerisadominantpassionofthehumanbosom，andaslongastheunderstandingsofmencanbewarpedandtheiraffectionschangedbyoperationsupontheirpassionsandprejudices，solongwillthelibertiesofapeopledependontheirownconstantattentiontoitspreservation.Thedangertoallwell-establishedfreegovernmentsarisesfromtheunwillingnessofthepeopletobelieveinitsexistenceorfromtheinfluenceofdesigningmendivertingtheirattentionfromthequarterwhenceitapproachestoasourcefromwhichitcannevercome.Thisistheoldtrickofthosewhowouldusurpthegovernmentoftheircountry.Inthenameofdemocracytheyspeak，warningthepeopleagainsttheinfluenceofwealthandthedangerofaristocracy.History，ancientandmodern，isfullofsuchexamples.CaesarbecamethemasteroftheRomanpeopleandthesenateunderthepretenseofsupportingthedemocraticclaimsoftheformeragainstthearistocracyofthelatter；Cromwell，inthecharacterofprotectorofthelibertiesofthepeople，becamethedictatorofEngland，andBolivarpossessedhimselfofunlimitedpowerwiththetitleofhiscountry''''sliberator.Thereis，onthecontrary，noinstanceonrecordofanextensiveandwell-establishedrepublicbeingchangedintoanaristocracy.Thetendenciesofallsuchgovernmentsintheirdeclineistomonarchy，andtheantagonistprincipletolibertythereisthespiritoffaction——aspiritwhichassumesthecharacterandintimesofgreatexcitementimposesitselfuponthepeopleasthegenuinespiritoffreedom，and，likethefalseChristswhosecomingwasforetoldbytheSavior，seeksto，andwereitpossiblewould，imposeuponthetrueandmostfaithfuldisciplesofliberty.Itisinperiodslikethisthatitbehoovesthepeopletobemostwatchfulofthosetowhomtheyhaveintrustedpower.Andalthoughthereisattimesmuchdifficultyindistinguishingthefalsefromthetruespirit，acalmanddispassionateinvestigationwilldetectthecounterfeit，aswellbythecharacterofitsoperationsastheresultsthatareproduced.Thetruespiritofliberty，althoughdevoted，persevering，bold，anduncompromisinginprinciple，thatsecuredismildandtolerantandscrupulousastothemeansitemploys，whilstthespiritofparty，assumingtobethatofliberty，isharsh，vindictive，andintolerant，andtotallyrecklessastothecharacteroftheallieswhichitbringstotheaidofitscause.Whenthegenuinespiritoflibertyanimatesthebodyofapeopletoathoroughexaminationoftheiraffairs，itleadstotheexcisionofeveryexcrescencewhichmayhavefasteneditselfuponanyofthedepartmentsofthegovernment，andrestoresthesystemtoitspristinehealthandbeauty.Butthereignofanintolerantspiritofpartyamongstafreepeopleseldomfailstoresultinadangerousaccessiontotheexecutivepowerintroducedandestablishedamidstunusualprofessionsofdevotiontodemocracy.

Theforegoingremarksrelatealmostexclusivelytomattersconnectedwithourdomesticconcerns.Itmaybeproper，however，thatIshouldgivesomeindicationstomyfellow-citizensofmyproposedcourseofconductinthemanagementofourforeignrelations.Iassurethem，therefore，thatitismyintentiontouseeverymeansinmypowertopreservethefriendlyintercoursewhichnowsohappilysubsistswitheveryforeignnation，andthatalthough，ofcourse，notwellinformedastothestateofpendingnegotiationswithanyofthem，Iseeinthepersonalcharactersofthesovereigns，aswellasinthemutualinterestsofourownandofthegovernmentswithwhichourrelationsaremostintimate，apleasingguarantythattheharmonysoimportanttotheinterestsoftheirsubjectsaswellasofourcitizenswillnotbeinterruptedbytheadvancementofanyclaimorpretensionupontheirparttowhichourhonorwouldnotpermitustoyield.Longthedefenderofmycountry''''srightsinthefield，Itrustthatmyfellow-citizenswillnotseeinmyearnestdesiretopreservepeacewithforeignpowersanyindicationthattheirrightswilleverbesacrificedorthehonorofthenationtarnishedbyanyadmissiononthepartoftheirChiefMagistrateunworthyoftheirformerglory.Inourintercoursewithouraboriginalneighborsthesameliberalityandjusticewhichmarkedthecourseprescribedtomebytwoofmyillustriouspredecessorswhenactingundertheirdirectioninthedischargeofthedutiesofsuperintendentandcommissionershallbestrictlyobserved.Icanconceiveofnomoresublimespectacle，nonemorelikelytopropitiateanimpartialandcommonCreator，thanarigidadherencetotheprinciplesofjusticeonthepartofapowerfulnationinitstransactionswithaweakeranduncivilizedpeoplewhomcircumstanceshaveplacedatitsdisposal.

Beforeconcluding，fellow-citizens，Imustsaysomethingtoyouonthesubjectofthepartiesatthistimeexistinginourcountry.Tomeitappearsperfectlyclearthattheinterestofthatcountryrequiresthattheviolenceofthespiritbywhichthosepartiesareatthistimegovernedmustbegreatlymitigated，ifnotentirelyextinguished，orconsequenceswillensuewhichareappallingtobethoughtof.

Ifpartiesinarepublicarenecessarytosecureadegreeofvigilancesufficienttokeepthepublicfunctionarieswithintheboundsoflawandduty，atthatpointtheirusefulnessends.Beyondthattheybecomedestructiveofpublicvirtue，theparentofaspiritantagonisttothatofliberty，andeventuallyitsinevitableconqueror.Wehaveexamplesofrepublicswheretheloveofcountryandoflibertyatonetimewerethedominantpassionsofthewholemassofcitizens，andyet，withthecontinuanceofthenameandformsoffreegovernment，notavestigeofthesequalitiesremaininginthebosomsofanyoneofitscitizens.ItwasthebeautifulremarkofadistinguishedEnglishwriterthat“intheRomansenateOctaviushadapartyandAnthonyaparty，buttheCommonwealthhadnone.”YetthesenatecontinuedtomeetinthetempleoflibertytotalkofthesacrednessandbeautyoftheCommonwealthandgazeatthestatuesoftheelderBrutusandoftheCurtiiandDecii，andthepeopleassembledintheforum，not，asinthedaysofCamillusandtheScipios，tocasttheirfreevotesforannualmagistratesorpassupontheactsofthesenate，buttoreceivefromthehandsoftheleadersoftherespectivepartiestheirshareofthespoilsandtoshoutforoneortheother，asthosecollectedinGaulorEgyptandthelesserAsiawouldfurnishthelargerdividend.Thespiritoflibertyhadfled，and，avoidingtheabodesofcivilizedman，hadsoughtprotectioninthewildsofScythiaorScandinavia；andsoundertheoperationofthesamecausesandinfluencesitwillflyfromourCapitolandourforums.Acalamitysoawful，notonlytoourcountry，buttotheworld，mustbedeprecatedbyeverypatriotandeverytendencytoastateofthingslikelytoproduceitimmediatelychecked.Suchatendencyhasexisted——doesexist.Alwaysthefriendofmycountrymen，nevertheirflatterer，itbecomesmydutytosaytothemfromthishighplacetowhichtheirpartialityhasexaltedmethatthereexistsinthelandaspirithostiletotheirbestinterests——hostiletolibertyitself.Itisaspiritcontractedinitsviews，selfishinitsobjects.Itlookstotheaggrandizementofafeweventothedestructionoftheinterestsofthewhole.Theentireremedyiswiththepeople.Something，however，maybeeffectedbythemeanswhichtheyhaveplacedinmyhands.Itisunionthatwewant，notofapartyforthesakeofthatparty，butaunionofthewholecountryforthesakeofthewholecountry，forthedefenseofitsinterestsanditshonoragainstforeignaggression，forthedefenseofthoseprinciplesforwhichourancestorssogloriouslycontendedAsfarasitdependsuponmeitshallbeaccomplished.AlltheinfluencethatIpossessshallbeexertedtopreventtheformationatleastofanExecutivepartyinthehallsofthelegislativebody.Iwishforthesupportofnomemberofthatbodytoanymeasureofminethatdoesnotsatisfyhisjudgmentandhissenseofdutytothosefromwhomheholdshisappointment，noranyconfidenceinadvancefromthepeoplebutthataskedforbyMr.Jefferson，“togivefirmnessandeffecttothelegaladministrationoftheiraffairs.”

Ideemthepresentoccasionsufficientlyimportantandsolemntojustifymeinexpressingtomyfellow-citizensaprofoundreverencefortheChristianreligionandathoroughconvictionthatsoundmorals，religiousliberty，andajustsenseofreligiousresponsibilityareessentiallyconnectedwithalltrueandlastinghappiness；andtothatgoodBeingwhohasblessedusbythegiftsofcivilandreligiousfreedom，whowatchedoverandprosperedthelaborsofourfathersandhashithertopreservedtousinstitutionsfarexceedinginexcellencethoseofanyotherpeople，letusuniteinferventlycommendingeveryinterestofourbelovedcountryinallfuturetime.

Fellow-citizens，beingfullyinvestedwiththathighofficetowhichthepartialityofmycountrymenhascalledme，Inowtakeanaffectionateleaveofyou.YouwillbearwithyoutoyourhomestheremembranceofthepledgeIhavethisdaygiventodischargeallthehighdutiesofmyexaltedstationaccordingtothebestofmyability，andIshallenterupontheirperformancewithentireconfidenceinthesupportofajustandgenerouspeople